"The gardens of the Mandarins in the city of Ningbo [Ning-po, visited for the first time by Fortune in the autumn of 1843] are very pretty and unique; they contain a choice selection of the ornamental trees and shrubs of China, and generally a considerable number of dwarf trees.  Many of the latter are really curious, and afford another example of the patience and ingenuity of this people.  Some of the specimens are only a few inches high, and yet seem hoary with age.  Not only are they trained to represent old trees in miniature, but some are made to resemble the fashionable pagodas of the country, and others different kinds of animals, amongst which the deer seems to be the favourite.  Junipers are generally chosen for the latter purpose, as they can be more readily bent into the desired form; the eyes and tongue are added afterwards, and the representation altogether is really good...
      "The dwarfed trees of the Chinese and Japanese have been noticed by every author who has written upon these countries, and all have attempted to give some description of the method by which the effect is produced.  The process is in reality a very simple one, and is based upon one of the commonest principles of vegetable physiology.  We all know that any thing which retards in any way the free circulation of the sap, also prevents to a certain extent the formation of wood and leaves.  This may be done by grafting, by confining the roots, withholding water, bending the branches, or in a hundred other ways which all proceed upon the same principle.  This principle is perfectly understood by the Chinese, and they make nature subservient to this particular whim of theirs.  We are told that the first part of the process is to select the very smallest seeds from the smallest plants, which is not at all unlikely, but I cannot speak to the fact from my own observation.  I have, however, often seen Chinese gardeners selecting suckers and plants for this purpose from the other plants which are growing in their garden.  Stunted varieties were generally chosen, particularly if they had  the side branches opposite or regular, for much depends upon this; a one-sided tree is of no value in the eyes of the Chinese.  The main stem was then in most cases twisted in a zigzag form, which process checked the flow of the sap, and at the same time encouraged the production of side branches at those parts of the stem where they were most desired.  When these suckers had formed roots in the open ground, or kind of nursery where they were planted, they were looked over and the best taken up for potting.  The same principles, which I have already noticed, were still kept in view, the pots used being narrow and shallow, so that they held but a small quantity of soil compared with the wants of the plants, and no more water being given than what was barely sufficient to keep them alive.  Whilst the branches were forming, they were tied down and twisted in various ways; the points of the leaders and strong growing ones were generally nipped out, and every means were [sic] taken to discourage the production of young shoots which were possessed of any degree of vigour.  Nature generally struggles against this treatment for a while, until her powers seem in a great measure exhausted, when she quietly yields to the power of the art.  The Chinese gardener, however, must be ever on the watch, for should the roots of his plants get through the pots into the ground, or happen to be liberally supplied with moisture, or should the young shoots be allowed to grow in their natural position for a short time, the vigour of the plant which has so long been lost will be restored, and the fairest specimens of Chinese dwarfing destroyed.  Sometimes, as is the case of peach and plum trees, which are often dwarfed, the plants are thrown into a flowering states, and then, as they flower freely year after year, they have little inclination to make vigorous growth.  The plants generally used in dwarfing are pines, junipers, cypresses, bamboos, peach and plum trees, and a species of small-leaved elm."

      "The only tree which I met with if very large size in this district [of Shanghai] is the Salisburia adiantifolia [Gingko biloba L.], commonly called the Maiden-hair tree, from the resemblance its leaves bear to a fern of that name.  This is one of the plants which the Chinese are fond of dwarfing, and it is, consequently, often seen in that state in their gardens."

      "I lost no time in visiting the celebrated Fa-tee Gardens, near Canton, the "flowery land," as the name implies, from whence a great number of those fine plants were first procured which now decorate our gardens in England...
      "The plants are principally kept in large pots arranged in rows along the sides of narrow paved walks, with the houses of the gardeners at the entrance through which the visitors pass to the gardens.  There are about a dozen of these gardens, more or less extensive, according to the business or wealth of the proprietor; but they are generally smaller than the smallest of our London nurseries.  They have also stock-grounds, where the different plants are planted out in the ground, and where the first process of dwarfing their celebrated trees is put in operation...
      "Dwarf trees, as may be supposed, occupy a principle station; they are trained into the most grotesque and curious forms.  The plants which stand next to dwarf trees in importance with the Chinese are certainly chrysanthemums, which they manage extremely well, perhaps better than they do any other plant.  So high do these plants stand in the favour of the Chinese gardener, that he will cultivate them extensively, even against the wishes of his employer; and, in many instances, rather leave his situation than give up the growth of his favourite flower."

      "The Soo-chow nurseries abounded in dwarf trees, many of which were very curious and old, two properties to which the Chinese attach far greater importance than do we in England." 2
 

      "...On visiting some of the flower-shops in Shanghae, in the middle of January, I was surprised to find a great many flowers which had been forced into bloom and were now exposed for sale.  I was not previously aware that the practice of forcing flowers was common in China....
      "It may be thought that the Chinese have glass houses, hot-water pipes, and all those fine things which assist gardeners and amateurs in Europe.  Nothing of the kind; they do all these things in their houses and sheds, with common charcoal fires, and a quantity of straw to stop up the crevices in the doors and windows."

      "A few days after visiting the moutan (tree peony) district, I went to see the azalea gardens, which were equally interesting.  About five miles from the city there are two nurseries, each of which contains an extensive and valuable collection.  They are usually known as the Pou-shan Gardens, and are often visited by the foreign residents in Shanghae...  In the front of the [residence of the nurseryman] three or four flat stages were covered with Japanese plants, of which the old man had a good collection.  A small species of pinus was much prized, and, when dwarfed in the manner of the Chinese, fetched a very high price; it is generally grafted on a variety of the stone pine. 
      "Before leaving these Shanghae Azalea gardens, I must notice one plant which was in flower at the time I paid this visit to them.  It was a specimen of Wistaria chinensis, in a dwarfed state growing in a pot.  The tree was evidently aged, from the size of its stem.  It was about six feet high, the branches came out from the stem in a regular and symmetrical manner, and it had all the appearance of a tree in miniature.  Every one of these branches was now loaded with long racemes of pendulous lilac blossoms.  These hung down from the horizontal branches, and gave the whole the appearance of a floral fountain.
      "...It is not indigenous to the south of China, and is rarely seen in perfection there." 3
 

      "[The less known Howqua's Garden] is situated near the well-known Fa-tee nurseries, a few miles above the city of Canton, and is a place of favourite resort both for Chinese and foreigners who reside in the neighbourhood, or who visit this part of the Celestial Empire...  The plants consist of good specimens of southern Chinese things, all well known in England, such, for example, as Cybidium sinense, Olea fragrans, oranges, roses, camellias, magnolias, &c., and, of course, a multitude of dwarf trees, without which no Chinese garden would be considered complete."

      "I have already noticed a new cedar or larch-tree named Abies Kaempferi discovered amongst these mountains [near the city of Ningbo].  I had been acquainted with this interesting tree for several years in China, but only in gardens, and as a pot plant in a dwarfed state.  The Chinese, by their favourite system of dwarfing, contrive to make it, when only a foot and a half or two feet high, have all the characters of an aged cedar of Lebanon.  It is called by them the Kin-le-sung, or Golden Pine, probably from the rich yellow appearance which the ripened leaves and cones assume in the autumn." 4
 

      "There are also a number of queer-looking detached little islands dotted about [the western edge of the large island of Kiu-siu]; and one almost wonders how they got there, as they seem to have no connexion [sic] with any other land near them.  Some of them are covered with a scraggy pine-tree or two, and look exactly like those bits of rockwork which are constantly met with in the gardens of China and Japan.  No doubt these rocky islands have suggested the idea worked out in gardens, and they have been well imitated."

      "[In Nagasaki] the houses of the high officials, wealthy merchants, or retired gentlemen, though generally small, and only of one or two stories in height, are comfortable and cleanly dwelling-places.  One marked feature of the people, both high and low, is a love for flowers.  Almost every house which has any pretension to respectability has a flower-garden in the rear, oftentimes indeed small, but neatly arranged; this adds greatly to the comfort and happiness of the family.  As the lower parts of the Japanese houses and shops are open both before and behind, I had peeps of these pretty little gardens as I passed along the streets; and wherever I observed one better than the rest I did not fail to pay it a visit.  Everywhere the inhabitants received me most politely, and permitted me to examine their pet flowers and dwarf trees.  Many of these places are exceedingly small, some not much larger than a good-sized dining-room; but the surface is rendered varied and pleasing by means of little mounds of turf, on which are planted dwarf trees kept clipped into fancy forms, and by miniature lakes, in which gold and silver fish and tortoises disport themselves.  It is quite refreshing to the eye to look out from the houses upon these gardens.  The plants generally met with in them were the following: -- Cycas revoluta, Azaleas, the pretty little dwarf variegated bamboo introduced by me into England from China, Pines, Junipers, Taxus, Podocarpus, Rhapis flabelliformis, and some ferns.  These gardens may be called the gardens of the respectable working classes.
      "On the side of a hill, a few miles out of Nagasaki, and amongst the most beautiful scenery, lives the veteran naturalist, Dr. Von Siebold.  His house is some distance away from that of any other European; and his delight seems to be in his garden, his library, and the Japanese country people who are his friends...
      "On a level with the house and around it are small nurseries for the reception and propagation of new plants, and for preparing them for transportation to Europe."

      "On our way home [to Nagasaki from an excursion into the surrounding countryside one glorious autumnal day] we visited a little garden belonging to an interpreter to the Japanese Government.  Here again I noticed some azaleas remarkable for their great size, and an extraordinary specimen of a dwarfed fir-tree.  Its lower branches were trained horizontally some twenty feet in length; all the leaves and branchlets were tied down and clipped, so that the whole was as flat as a board.  The upper branches were trained to form circles one above another like so many little tables, and the whole plant had a most curious appearance.  A man was at work upon it at the time, and I believe it keeps him constantly employed every day throughout the year!"

      "The capital of Japan is remarkable for the large number of gardens in its suburbs where plants are cultivated for sale.  The good people of Yedo, like all highly civilized nations, are fond of flowers, and hence the demand for them is very great.  The finest and most extensive of these gardens are situated in the north-eastern suburbs, at places called Dang-o-zaka, Ogee, and Su-mae-yah.  As one of my chief objects in coming to Yedo was to examine such places as these, I lost no time in paying them a visit.
      "As the British Legation was situated in the south-west suburb, I had to cross the entire city before I could reach these gardens...about 9 or 10 miles...
      "[The great city was at last left behind.]  Park-like scenery, trees and gardens, neatly-clipped hedges, succeeded each other; and my attendant yakoneens [who accompanied me on all my excursions to prevent the chance of an attack from any one who had seen us going out] at length announced that we had arrived at the village of Su-mae-yah.  The whole country here is covered with nursery-gardens.  One straight road, more than a mile in length, is lined with them.  I have never seen, in any part of the world, such a large number of plants cultivated for sale.  Each nursery covers three or four acres of land, is nicely kept, and contains thousands of plants, both in pots and in the open ground.  As these nurseries are generally much alike in their features, a description of one will give a good idea of them all.
      "On entering the gateway there is a pretty little winding path leading up to the proprietor's house, which is usually situated near the centre of the garden.  On each side of this walk are planted specimens of the hardy ornamental trees and shrubs of the country, many of which are dwarfed or clipped into round table forms [sic].  The beautiful little yew (Taxus cuspidata) which I formerly introduced into Europe from China, occupies a prominent place amongst dwarf shrubs.  Then there are the different species of Pines, Thujas, Retinosporas, and the beautiful Sciadopitys verticillata, all duly represented.
      "Plants cultivated in pots are usually kept near the house of the nurseryman, or enclosed with a fence of bamboo-work.  These are cultivated and arranged much in the same way as we do such things at home.  The Japanese gardener has not yet brought glass-houses to his aid for the protection and cultivation of tender plants.  Instead of this he uses sheds and rooms fitted with shelves, into which all the tender things are huddled together for shelter during the cold months of winter.  Here I observed some South American plants, such as cacti, aloes, &c., which have found their way here, although as yet unknown in China -- a fact which shows the enterprise of the Japanese in a favourable light.  A pretty species of fuchsia was also observed amongst the other foreigners.  In one garden I saw a large number of species of acorus with deep green leaves.  These were cultivated in fine square porcelain pots, and in each pot was a little rock of agate, crystal, or other rare stone, many of these representing the famous Fusi-yama, or "Matchless Mountain" of Japan.  Al this little arrangement was shaded from bright sunshine and protected from storms by means of a matting which was stretched overhead.  There was nothing else in this garden but the acorus above mentioned, but of this there must have been several hundred specimens.  The pretty Nanking square porcelain pots, the masses of deep green foliage, and the quaint form and colouring of the little rocks, produced a novel and striking effect, which one does not meet with every day.
     "In Japan, as in China, dwarf plants are greatly esteemed; and the art of dwarfing has been brought to a high state of perfection.  [The Dutch East India Company's] President Meylan, in the year 1826, saw a box which he describes as only one inch square by three inches high, in which were actually growing and thriving a bamboo, a fir, and a plum-tree, the latter being in full blossom.  The price of this portable grove was 1200 Dutch gulden, or about 100l.  In the gardens of Su-mae-yah dwarf plants were fairly represented, although I did not meet with anything so very small and very expensive as that above mentioned.  Pines, junipers, thujas, bamboos, cherry and plum trees, are generally the plants chosen for the purpose of dwarfing.
      "The art of dwarfing trees, as commonly practiced both in Japan and China, is in reality very simple and easily understood. It is based upon one of the commonest principles of vegetable physiology.  Anything which has a tendency to check or retard the flow of the sap in trees, also prevents, to a certain extent, the formation of wood and leaves.  * * * [a slightly condensed version of what Fortune first wrote of in Three Years Wanderings follows] * * *   It is a curious fact that when plants, from any cause, become stunted or unhealthy, they almost invariably produce flowers and fruit, and thus endeavor to propagate and perpetuate their kind.  Flowering trees -- such, for example, as peaches and plums -- produce their blossoms most profusely under the treatment I have described; and as they expend their energies in this way, they have little indication to make vigorous growth.
 The most remarkable feature in the nurseries of Su-mae-yah and Dang-o-zaka is the large number of plants with variegated leaves.  It is only a very few years since our taste in Europe led us to take an interest in and to admire those curious freaks of nature called variegated plants.  For anything I know to the contrary, the Japanese have been cultivating this taste for a thousand years [sic]...
      "On various occasions during my stay in Yedo I repeated my visits to [those nurseries] and was thus enabled to add to my collections a very large number of the ornamental trees and shrubs of Japan." 5 

1     Jellicoe, Sir Geoffrey and Susan Jellicoe (consult. eds.) and Patrick Goode and Michael Lancaster (exec. eds.)  The Oxford Companion to Gardens (Oxford University Press, 1986),  pg. 196; The Marshall Cavendish Illustrated Encyclopedia of Plants and Earth Science (Bellmore, NY: Marshall Cavendish Corporation, 1988, reference edition published 1990), Volume 6, pg. 684. 

2    Fortune Robert Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1979, reprint of the 1847 edition published by John Murray, London, a title in Garland's 'The Modern Chinese Economy Series (The Late Imperial Period)' edited by Ramon H. Myers, Hoover Institution).  The provinces actually were Zhejiang, Jiangsu, and Anhui, mostly along the southeastern coasts of China, but essentially north of the Western settlements.   The gardens of the Mandarins quote, pp. 94-98; also partially quoted in Behme, Robert Lee  Bonsai, Saikei and Bonkei: Japanese Dwarf Trees and Tray Landscapes  (New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc., 1969), pg. 9 and Resnick, Susan M. Bachenheimer  Bonsai (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1991, 1992), pg. 14; The only tree which I met quote, pg. 129; I lost no time in visiting quote, pg. 154; The Soo-chow nurseries quote, pg. 260; Johnson, Hugh   The International Book of Trees (New York: Simon and Schuster; 1973),  pg. 49, has a small b&w photo of Fortune; Bretschneider, Emil  History of European Botanical Discoveries in China (Leipzig: Zentral-Antiquariat; 1981, reprint of the original 1898 edition), pp. 404-517, which also mentions correspondence published in the Gardener's Chronicle and Journal of the Hort. Society.  It is not known if there were any dwarf tree references in these that were not also in Fortune's four books; cf. Keswick, Maggie Chinese Garden: History, Art & Architecture (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc.; 1978, Academy Editions, London), b&w fig. 49, pg. 54 of a "Deer-shaped tree, nursery garden, Hangchow.  Deer are a Chinese symbol for long life..."

3     Fortune, Robert   A Journey to the Tea Countries of China  (London: John Murray, 1852), On visiting some of the flower-shops quote, pp. 121-122, A few days after visiting quote pp. 327-329, Before leaving these quote, pp. 334-335.  Per pp. 4-5, between 1843 and 1845 there was a great mortality which hit the British troops stationed there.  After 1845 there were many changes to Hong Kong, dense building of houses, and interest in gardening and planting.  The latter improved the particularly hot climate with softness and coolness.  Per pg. 21, he went inland himself because of the uncertainty that his hired Chinese agent did get tea plants from the interior as requested (rather than a few miles inland at the nearest tea district), and to see for himself the best modes of cultivation and the nature of the soil of the interior district; Bretschneider, History, pg. 450, gives part of the Wistaria quote.

4     Fortune, Robert  A Residence Among the Chinese (London: John Murray, 1857), [The less known Howqua's Garden] quote, pp. 214-215; I have already noticed quote, pp. 275-275.  Per pg. 144-146, in addition to tea seeds, large quantities of chestnuts and seeds of Cryptomeria japonica, green-indigo (which yielded a dye attracting much attention in France at the time), and many others were collected, which by the late 1850's were flourishing on the slopes of the Himalayas in the northwestern provinces of India.

5     Fortune, Robert Yedo and Peking, A Narrative of A Journey to the Capitals of Japan and China (London: John Murray, 1863), There are also a number quote pp. 2-3; [In Nagasaki] quote, pp. 11-12; On the side of a hill quote, pp. 16-17; On our way home quote, pp. 22-23, note that Fortune makes no comment or insinuation that this dwarf fir-tree (or the dwarf trees in the first quote, for that matter) was in any type of a container outside of the ground; The capital of Japan et al quote, pp. 103, 108, 109-114.